The Mon people, descending from the Proto-Austroasiatic community, are believed to have undertaken a migration from Southern China’s Yangtze Kiang valley to Southeast Asia, occurring between 3,000 and 2,000 BCE. Navigating the Mekong, Salween, Sittaung, Irrawaddy, Ping, and Chao Phaya rivers, they eventually settled in diverse locations, reaching as far south as Malaya.

During their migration, the Mon people introduced riverine agriculture practices, including the cultivation of wet rice, significantly influencing the agricultural traditions of the regions through which they traveled. Contemporary linguistic research, particularly by Sidwell (2021), suggests that the central hub of Proto-Austroasiatic people existed in the Red River Delta area of Northern Vietnam, approximately 4,000 to 4,500 years ago. This insight into historical movements and cultural contributions underscores the Mon people’s role in shaping the socio-cultural landscape of Southeast Asia.

The Mon people are considered among the earliest inhabitants of Mainland Southeast Asia, establishing some of the region’s earliest civilizations. These include Dvaravati in Central Thailand, which extended its cultural influence into Northeastern Thailand, Sri Gotapura in Central Laos (modern Sikhottabong, Vientiane Prefecture), the Hariphunchai Kingdom in Northern Thailand, and the Thaton Kingdom in Lower Myanmar. Notably, the Mon were pioneers in receiving Theravada Buddhist missionaries from Sri Lanka, distinguishing them from their Hindu contemporaries like the Cham peoples. They adopted the Pallava script, with the oldest form of the Mon script discovered in a cave in modern-day Saraburi, dating back to around 550 CE. While no physical remains have been found from the Thaton Kingdom, it is extensively mentioned in Bamar and Lanna chronicles.

According to the Northern Thai Chronicles, Phaya Kalavarnadishraj founded the city of Lavo (modern Lopburi) in 648 CE, coming from Takkasila, presumed to be the city of Tak or Nakhon Chai Si. Another historical figure, Phaya Kakabatr, believed to hail from Takkasila, established the Chula Sakarat era in 638 CE, used by the Siamese and Burmese until the 19th century. Phaya Kalavarnadishraj’s son founded Lavo a decade later, and by the late 7th century, Lavo had expanded northward. The legendary Queen Camadevi, daughter of a Lavo king, according to the Northern Thai Chronicle Cāmadevivaṃsa, became the first queen of Hariphunchai (modern Lamphun) around 750-800 CE. In subsequent years, her son Prince Anantayot played a significant role in the history of the Hariphunchai Kingdom by founding Khelang Nakhon (modern Lampang).

After 1000 CE, the Dvaravati Mon people faced constant pressure from Tai migrations from the north and Khmer invasions from the east. Many Dvaravati Mons fled to join other Mon civilizations in present-day Lower Myanmar, while their descendants, the Nyah Kur people, still reside in Northeastern Thailand. Despite pressure from the Northern Thai people, the Hariphunchai kingdom managed to survive as a Mon outpost in Northern Thailand.

The Myazedi Inscription (AD 1113) in the Mon language in Bagan stands as one of the oldest surviving stone inscriptions in Myanmar.

In 1057 CE, King Anawrahta of the Pagan Kingdom conquered the Thaton Kingdom of the Mon people in Lower Burma. The Mon culture and script significantly influenced the Bamar, bringing the Mon people under Bamar control for the first time. Despite this, the Mon remained the majority in Lower Burma.

The Hariphunchai Kingdom of the Mon prospered during the reign of King Aditayaraj in the early twelfth century. He is said to have fought wars with Suryavarman II of Angkor between 1113 and 1150 CE and constructed the Hariphunchai stupa.

In 1289, Mangrai, also known as Mengrai, was visited by merchants from the Mon kingdom of Haripunchai. Lured by the wealth of that kingdom, Mangrai sought to conquer it against the advice of his counselors. Utilizing strategic infiltration, Mangrai succeeded in defeating the Mon kingdom of Haripunchai in 1292, adding it to his realm. This led to the integration of Mon culture into Lan Na culture, with the Lan Na adopting the Mon script and religion.

In 1287, the disintegration of the Pagan Kingdom  resulted in a power vacuum. Wareru, born to a Mon mother and a Tai father in Donwun Village in the Thaton District, engaged in trade in Sukhothai and eventually eloped with the king’s daughter. Establishing himself as the Mon king in Martaban (present-day Mottama), he later relocated the capital to Pegu. The Hanthawaddy Kingdom, spanning from 1287 to 1539, marked an era of prosperity and influence for the Mon.

During the mid-14th century, King Binnya U ruled over the Mon kingdom and effectively defended against a Lan Na invasion. Despite losing control of the Tenasserim region, he managed to re-establish the capital in Pegu. Following his demise in 1384, King Razadarit, Binnya U’s son, ascended to the throne and formed an alliance with the kingdom of Arakan. Known for his administrative prowess, King Razadarit successfully repelled Ava Kingdom invasions during his reign. He played a crucial role in enhancing the Shwedagon Pagoda and is revered as one of the most esteemed Mon kings in history, with his rule spanning from 1384 to 1421.

After King Razadarit’s passing, there were brief succession disputes in Pegu. Eventually, his daughter, Queen Shin Sawbu, assumed the throne in 1453. Queen Shin Sawbu, a skilled politician, maintained harmony among rival kingdoms. She is fondly remembered for her benevolence, the renovation of the Shwedagon Pagoda, and the construction of significant monasteries like the Kyaikmaraw near Moulmein.

King Dhammazedi, who succeeded Queen Shin Sawbu in 1470, was a just and wise ruler. Renowned for his generosity, he made substantial gold donations to the Shwedagon Pagoda and constructed important temples around Pegu, including the Shwegugyi Pagoda.

The Bamar resurgence began in the early 16th century, culminating in the fall of Hanthawaddy to King Tabinshwehti in 1539. Following a devastating assault on Lower Burma, the northern army conquered the Irrawaddy Delta, capturing Pegu after a four-year siege. Portuguese mercenaries participated in the conflict on both sides. Tabinshwehti’s success was attributed, in part, to the perceived decadence of the Mon king, Dhammazedi’s heir, according to the History of Kings.

The fall of Pegu prompted a mass exodus of Mon refugees to Ayutthaya, where the Mon aristocracy gained influence at the court. Simultaneously, in Burma, the capture of Martaban in 1541 and the sack of the old Pyu capital Prome marked a significant shift of Lower and Central Burma under Bamar control, a situation not seen since before the Mongol invasions. Tabinshwehti, the founder of the new Toungoo dynasty, celebrated his reign by adorning the Shwedagon and other pagodas with vast amounts of looted gold.

Despite Tabinshwehti’s attempts to win over the Mon people, he consistently emphasized his claim to Bamar nationality and sovereignty. Nonetheless, Tabinshwehti exhibited more tolerance compared to later Toungoo kings who outlawed the Mon language and persecuted the Mon people.

After Tabinshwehti’s coronation in 1546, Ayutthaya launched numerous raids on Lower Burma, including the successful capture of Tavoy in 1548. The Mon, taking advantage of the disarray in the Toungoo dynasty after Tabinshwehti’s death in 1550, made another bid for independence under the leadership of the legendary Mon rebel, Smim Htaw. Although Smim Htaw briefly captured Dagon and ousted the Burmese from Pegu, internal disputes among the Mon allowed Tabinshwehti’s general, Bayinnaung, to reclaim the city.

Despite Bayinnaung’s concessions, granting the Mon control over townships and villages, and integrating them into the military, he did not recognize their right to national self-determination. This subordinated the Mon to the Bamar. Major Mon uprisings occurred during Bayinnaung’s rule, notably in 1551 and 1564, resulting in the destruction of the royal palace in Pegu.

Following King Bayinnaung’s death, his successor, King Nanda, implemented oppressive policies against the Mon, prompting Mon chiefs Phaya Kiat and Phaya Ram to attempt the assassination of Naresuan of Phitsanulok in 1584. However, they later learned that Naresuan was not responsible for these policies and joined his campaigns against the Toungoo court.

In the 17th century, Bamar King Anaukpetlun launched a counter-attack against Mon rebels, capturing their stronghold at Syriam. Mon lands were eventually reclaimed, and the capital was relocated to Pegu. An unsuccessful Mon uprising occurred in Martaban in 1661, leading to fleeing Mon refugees seeking refuge in Ayutthaya via the Three Pagodas Pass. Smim Htaw. Although Smim Htaw briefly captured Dagon and ousted the Burmese from Pegu, internal disputes among the Mon allowed Tabinshwehti’s general, Bayinnaung, to reclaim the city.

Despite Bayinnaung’s concessions, granting the Mon control over townships and villages, and integrating them into the military, he did not recognize their right to national self-determination. This subordinated the Mon to the Bamar. Major Mon uprisings occurred during Bayinnaung’s rule, notably in [1551] and 1564, resulting in the destruction of the royal palace in Pegu.

Following King Bayinnaung’s death, his successor, King Nanda, implemented oppressive policies against the Mon, prompting Mon chiefs Phaya Kiat and Phaya Ram to attempt the assassination of Naresuan of Phitsanulok in [1584]. However, they later learned that Naresuan was not responsible for these policies and joined his campaigns against the Toungoo court.

In the 17th century, Bamar King Anaukpetlun launched a counter-attack against Mon rebels, capturing their stronghold at Syriam. Mon lands were eventually reclaimed, and the capital was relocated to Pegu. An unsuccessful Mon uprising occurred in Martaban in 1661, leading to fleeing Mon refugees seeking refuge in Ayutthaya via the Three Pagodas Pass.

The influence of the Bamar dwindled rapidly. Mon rebels collaborated with the Gwe Shan to revive their former Hanthawaddy Kingdom. In 1740, a monk with Taungoo royal lineage assumed the throne of Pegu. Binnya Dala succeeded him in 1747, and backed by French support, the Mon established the independent Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom. However, the kingdom succumbed to the invasion of Bamar King Alaungpaya in 1757, resulting in widespread devastation and the tragic loss of tens of thousands of Mon civilians, including monks, pregnant women, and children. The victorious Bamar forces perpetrated a brutal massacre, claiming the lives of over 3,000 Mon monks in the capital city alone.

Throughout the Konbaung dynasty of Burma, the Mon people endured oppressive rule and massacres, prompting a significant migration to Siam and Lanna. Facing extensive violence and persecution, the Mon rebelled on multiple occasions, including a rebellion at Dagon during the reign of Hsinbyushin, resulting in the city’s destruction. Another uprising occurred in 1814, which was brutally suppressed, contributing significantly to a large wave of Mon migration from Burma to Siam.

On the Siamese side, following the fall of Ayutthaya in 1767, two descendants of Mon aristocrats who had moved to Siam in 1584, Phraya Pichai and Phraya Chakri, became crucial allies to King Taksin of Thonburi. They played a significant role in Taksin’s campaigns to liberate Siam from Burmese occupation and reunite the kingdom. King Taksin himself had Sino-Mon descent, and his maternal grandmother was a sister to the chief of Siam’s Mon community.

After the collapse of Taksin’s Thonburi Kingdom, Phraya Chakri established the Chakri dynasty and became Rama I in 1782. Rama I, born to Thongdi, a prominent Mon nobleman serving the royal court in Ayutthaya, married Amarindra, born into a wealthy Mon family that had migrated to Siam earlier. Rama I founded Bangkok City and relocated the capital from Thonburi to Bangkok. When a substantial wave of Mon migrations from Burma to Siam occurred in 1814, Rama I’s grandson, Prince Mongkut (later Rama IV), personally welcomed the Mon at the Siam-Burma border.

In Thailand, the Mon settled mainly in specific areas of Central Thailand, such as Pak Kret in Nonthaburi, Phra Pradaeng in Samut Prakan, and Ban Pong, establishing their own Buddhist temples. Over time, the Mons were assimilated into Siamese society and culture, retaining some of their traditions and identity.

The British successfully conquered Burma through a series of wars. After the Second Anglo-Burmese War in 1852, the Mon territories in Burma fell entirely under British control. The British supported the Mon people in breaking free from the rule of the Bamar monarchy. Under Bamar governance, the Mon people had faced massacres after losing their kingdom, and many sought refuge in the Thai Kingdom. The British dominance in Burma allowed the Mon people to endure in Southern Burma.

In 1947, Mon National Day was established to commemorate the founding of Hanthawady, the last Mon Kingdom centered in Pegu. The holiday is observed on the full moon of the 11th month of the Mon lunar calendar, except in Phrapadaeng, Thailand, where it coincides with the Songkran festival.

The Mon community soon adopted an anti-colonial stance. Following Burma’s independence grant in 1948, they advocated for self-determination. U Nu, the first Prime Minister of Burma, rejected Mon self-determination. Mon separatist movements emerged in defiance of the central Burmese government, initially under the Mon People’s Front and later through the New Mon State Party (NMSP) starting in 1962. The BSSP-led government established a partially autonomous Mon State in 1974, encompassing portions of Tenasserim and Pegu regions. Resistance persisted until 1995 when NMSP and the ruling SLORC reached a cease-fire agreement, and in 1996, the Mon Unity League was founded.

In contemporary times, the Mon constitute a significant ethnic group in Myanmar and a smaller ethnic community in Thailand. Those from Myanmar are commonly referred to as Burmese Mon or Myanmar Mon, while their counterparts in Thailand are known as Thai Raman or Thai Mon. Recent genetic studies highlight a close genetic affinity between central Thai individuals and the Mon people in Thailand, who originally migrated from southern Myanmar.

The aftermath of post-independence internal conflicts in Myanmar has led many ethnic Mon from conflict areas to seek refuge in First World countries through refugee camps along the Thai-Myanmar borders and in Malaysia. Notable Myanmar Mon refugee communities have emerged in the United States (with the largest population in Fort Wayne, Indiana, and the second largest in Akron, Ohio), Australia, Canada, Norway, Denmark, Finland, Sweden, and the Netherlands.